The Powder Keg: Rocketry Before the Space Age

Goddard’s Rocket

Dr Robert H. Goddard, a physicist and inventor, is widely recognised as the pioneer of practical modern rocketry and spaceflight. Working in the early twentieth century, he developed concepts that laid the groundwork for ballistic missiles, Earth‑orbiting satellites, and interplanetary exploration. His research would later influence the strategic missile and space‑launch capabilities of the United States Air Force.

Inspired by science fiction in his youth, Goddard became convinced that rockets could be used to reach space. In 1914 he patented a number of revolutionary ideas, including multi‑stage rockets and liquid‑fuelled propulsion. Despite persistent ridicule from the press and limited government backing, his published papers attracted the attention of rocket enthusiasts around the world, triggering renewed experimental efforts in the United States, Europe, and Russia.

These efforts culminated in a series of breakthroughs, most notably the first successful launch of a liquid‑fuelled rocket in 1926. Although the flight lasted just 2.5 seconds and reached an altitude of only 41 feet, it represented a decisive milestone in rocket development. Conducted near Worcester, Massachusetts, the test conclusively demonstrated the viability of liquid‑fuel propulsion. In 1930, seeking a larger and safer environment for further experiments, Goddard relocated his work to Roswell, New Mexico.

While his achievements attracted interest from Germany, Goddard remained reluctant to collaborate with German researchers, particularly as the country’s political and military posture hardened. Nevertheless, correspondence from German experimenters continued throughout the period.

The Aggregat project

Goddard’s 1919 publication, A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes, had a profound influence on a young Wernher von Braun, who also studied Hermann Oberth’s landmark 1923 work, By Rocket into Planetary Space.

A loophole in the Treaty of Versailles excluded rocketry from the list of prohibited weapons, allowing Germany to pursue rocket research. After completing a degree in mechanical engineering in 1932, von Braun joined the German Army’s Weapons Department at Kummersdorf‑West, bringing with him a liquid‑propellant engine of his own design. Its first test ended in an explosion, underscoring the technical challenges ahead.

A-1

In early 1933, von Braun’s team rebuilt the engine and integrated it into the Aggregat‑1 (A‑1) rocket. The engine was mounted within the fuel tank, which contained a mixture of 75 per cent ethyl alcohol and 25 per cent water to moderate combustion temperatures. Above this were a liquid oxygen (LOX) tank and a nitrogen sphere used to pressurise the propellants. By December, the engine had completed static testing and was ready for flight, producing 660 pounds of thrust for up to 16 seconds. A gyroscope installed in the nose was intended to provide stability, but scale‑model testing revealed significant flaws in this configuration.

The A‑1’s only launch attempt, on 21 December 1933, ended in an explosion caused by vibration during ignition. The rocket never achieved a successful flight.

A-2

Following the failure of the A‑1 and the recognition that the guidance system required redesign, work began on the A‑2 in 1934. The most significant change was the relocation of the gyroscope to the rocket’s centre of gravity. Two rockets were constructed and transported to Borkum Island, where a 12‑metre launch tower was erected.

Both launches in December 1934 were successful, reaching altitudes of 2.2 kilometres and 3.5 kilometres respectively, and demonstrating stable powered flight. At apogee, however, both rockets unexpectedly pitched over and entered a spiral descent. Initially blamed on wind, the behaviour was later attributed to decelerating gyroscopes. Despite this limitation, the A‑2 represented a major step forward and directly informed the design of the larger A‑3.

A-3

The A‑3 was conceived as a scaled‑up successor to the A‑2 and incorporated a more sophisticated guidance system. Three gyroscopes and two integrating accelerometers controlled graphite vanes placed in the exhaust plume during the rocket’s 45‑second burn. Each flight carried instruments to record temperature, pressure, and heating during descent.

With the establishment of the Rocket Research Centre at Peenemünde on the Baltic coast, the team gained access to substantially improved facilities. Even so, test flights in December 1937 proved disappointing. The first two launches suffered engine malfunctions and premature parachute deployment. Subsequent attempts, conducted with the parachutes disabled, continued to experience engine failures and aerodynamic instability. These problems were ultimately traced to shortcomings in both the guidance system and fin design.

As a result, the A‑3 programme was abandoned and efforts redirected towards the A‑5.

A-5

The A‑5 functioned as a dedicated test vehicle for technologies intended for the future A‑4. Although its engine closely resembled that of the A‑3, the design incorporated a new control system, improved parachutes, and high‑visibility paint to aid recovery. Wind‑tunnel testing of revised tail‑fin configurations was carried out alongside launches of quarter‑scale models.

Guided flight tests began in October 1939, with the Siemens Vertikant control system introduced in April 1940. By October 1943, around 80 launches had been conducted, some reaching altitudes of up to 12 kilometres. These tests successfully validated the aerodynamic and guidance solutions required for the A‑4.

The success of the A‑5 demonstrated the practicality of a long‑range rocket weapon and paved the way for full‑scale development.

A-4

Development of the A‑4 commenced around 1939 with the objective of producing a large, liquid‑fuelled ballistic missile capable of delivering a warhead over long distances. Powered by a single engine burning ethanol and liquid oxygen, the rocket generated approximately 25 tonnes of thrust. At 14 metres tall and weighing more than 12.5 metric tonnes at launch, the A‑4 represented a significant engineering achievement, demanding major advances in propulsion, guidance, and structural materials.

Initial test flights at Peenemünde began in 1942 and encountered a range of technical difficulties, including guidance failures, structural break‑ups, and stress‑related damage. Each failure informed incremental improvements, from stronger alloys and more reliable turbopumps to refined gyroscopic systems. The programme reached a turning point on 3 October 1942, when a successful launch carried the A‑4 to an altitude of approximately 84.5 kilometres and a range of nearly 190 kilometres before it fell into the Baltic Sea.

This flight marked the first time a human‑made object reached space under its own power. Following this success, the programme accelerated towards operational readiness. During development, approximately 60 to 70 test rockets were launched from sites including Peenemünde, Greifswalder Oie, and Blizna in occupied Poland, serving as experimental platforms to refine critical technologies.

A-4 becomes the V-2

With its capabilities proven, the A‑4 was formally adopted by the German military and redesignated Vergeltungswaffe 2 (Vengeance Weapon 2), more commonly known as the V‑2. The new name reflected the Nazi regime’s intention to deploy the rocket as a retaliatory weapon against Allied bombing campaigns.

This transition marked the end of the A‑4’s experimental phase and the beginning of mass production and operational use. Although conceived as a scientific and engineering breakthrough, the A‑4 became the world’s first long‑range guided ballistic missile employed in warfare.

Under the V‑2 designation, production was concentrated at the Mittelwerk underground facility, where forced labour was used under brutal conditions. Between late 1943 and early 1945, around 5,000 V‑2 rockets were manufactured. Of these, an estimated 3,000 to 3,200 were launched in combat against targets including London, Antwerp, and Liège.